🇪🇸Mortgages for Non-Residents: Eleven Countries, LTV, Rates and Documents

The property cluster on this wiki covers eleven countries — from Spain to Singapore — and mortgage finance is treated in depth in exactly one of them, the UAE article, which sets out the CBUAE ratios. The gap is structural: a non-resident buyer runs into the financing question before the transfer tax, and settles it before choosing a property. What follows is the regulatory LTV ceiling in all eleven jurisdictions, actual market figures for 2024–2026, named lender criteria where these are published, and an honest marking of the places where no public data exists at all.

The concept

Any discussion of non-resident mortgages splits into three layers, and confusing them produces most of the mistaken expectations.

• The regulatory LTV ceiling — a central bank or macroprudential rule that binds the lender
• Bank practice for non-residents — internal credit policy, rarely published and changed without notice
• Barriers before the loan — the reciprocity condition, country blacklists, and a purchase tax that outweighs the deposit

The rate backdrop in August 2026

Every rate reference below is measured from a single point. Since 17 June 2026 the ECB has held the deposit facility at 2.25%, the main refinancing operations rate at 2.40% and marginal lending at 2.65%. The level marks a turn: the easing cycle took the deposit rate from a peak of 4.00% (September 2023) to a low of 2.00% from 11 June 2025, and the current level sits a quarter of a point above that low.

Twelve-month Euribor has risen throughout 2026: the official June figure is 2.798% (Resolución of 1 July 2026, BOE-A-2026-14420), July 2.839%, and August on the partial month a monthly average of 2.92% against a daily value of 2.884%. In January the index stood at 2.245%, and in August of last year at 2.112%.

The Bank of England held Bank Rate at 3.75% on 30 July 2026, with the next MPC decision due on 17 September. In France the 10-year OAT yield touched 4% on 23 July for the first time since 2009, the Livret A rate rose from 1.5% to 1.7% on 1 August, and against that backdrop the broker network CAFPI expects no fall in mortgage rates in September.

The regulatory ceiling across eleven jurisdictions

Actual market figures from the European Mortgage Federation (Hypostat 2025, reporting 2024 data) run well below the regulatory limits. Spain: average LTV on new lending 63%, rate 3.3%, term 24.5 years, 90% of originations fixed, foreign buyers accounting for 18% of transactions. Portugal: actual LTV 69% against a 90% ceiling, rate 4.1%, term 31 years. France: LTV 77.7%, an annual average rate of 3.72% — the highest since 2012 — term 22.25 years, 99% of new lending fixed. Greece: LTV 60.9%, rate 4.06%, falling to 3.69% in Q1 2025. Austria: LTV “around 50%, rarely above 75%”, rate 3.89%. Bulgaria: LTV 70–80%, rate 2.53% in BGN and 2.95% in EUR — the lowest in the set.

The UAE: the one country already covered, and an error in the coverage

The Regulations Regarding Mortgage Loans (Circular 31/2013, in force since 28 December 2013) are addressed to banks, finance companies and other mortgage providers, and identify three categories of borrower: UAE nationals, GCC nationals and expatriates. “Expatriate” in the language of the regulation means a foreign national holding a residence visa. A non-resident without a UAE visa falls outside the regulation altogether, and their terms are set by the bank's internal policy.

Article (3) Important Ratios supplies the precise figures. UAE nationals: a first owner-occupied home valued up to AED 5m at 85%, above AED 5m at 75%, second and investment property at 65%. Resident expatriates: 80%, 70% and 60% respectively. Off-plan purchases for every category: 50%. Maximum tenor: 25 years. Income multiples run to eight years' annual income for nationals and seven for expatriates. The debt burden ratio is 50% of gross salary, rising to 60% under government housing programmes.

Two widely repeated claims are contradicted by the regulation itself. The CBUAE sets no maximum age at the date of the final instalment: the rule expressly hands the question to lenders “in accordance with their risk management and lending policies”, so the figures of 65 and 70 that circulate in market commentary are not regulatory. The current 85/75 and 80/70 ratios are the product of a narrow amendment: board resolution 31/2/2020 of 8 April 2020 raised the first owner-occupied home ceilings by 5 percentage points for nationals and expatriates alike, while the limits on second and investment property (65% and 60%) were left untouched. The amendment carries no expiry date and is not described in its own text as a temporary measure.

Practice on non-residents is known only from marketing material. Engel & Völkers (updated 21.09.2025) cites LTVs of 60–65% and names Emirates NBD, Mashreq, ADCB, HSBC and FAB, noting that each bank maintains its own list of eligible countries. The developer Grovy (03.07.2026) gives LTVs of 50–60%, minimum income of AED 10,000–15,000 a month for salaried expatriates and AED 25,000 for the self-employed, a 4% DLD transfer fee, mortgage registration at 0.25% of the loan, a bank arrangement fee of 0.5–1% and valuation at AED 2,500–3,500. None of these figures is supported by a rule, and each needs checking with the bank itself.

The United Kingdom: the expat lender as a market of its own

There is no regulatory LTV ceiling in the United Kingdom, so the criteria of individual lenders are what matter. Skipton International (Guernsey) publishes its own in full: LTV by loan band — up to £1.25m 75%, £1.25–1.5m 70%, £1.5–3m 65%, £3–4m 60%, £4–5m 50%. Minimum income for an employed applicant is £50,000 individually or £80,000 jointly; for the self-employed, above £75,000 and £100,000 with at least two years' trading; pension income is assessed against the same pair of thresholds, £50,000 and £80,000. Income is accepted in local currency and must not be taxable in the United Kingdom. Portfolio landlords — those with four or more mortgaged properties — must meet 125% rental cover stressed at 7.24% across all buy-to-let borrowing. Portfolio limits: no more than five buy-to-let mortgages with Skipton itself, fewer than ten properties in total and no more than three within a single postcode district, with an EPC rating of A–C, or D where it can be upgraded. The applicant must be resident outside the United Kingdom; a restricted-country list applies, alongside a separate exclusion — the bank does not lend to Chinese nationals residing in mainland China.

A broker view of the wider market (published 12.06.2026 and flagged as marketing) puts the typical ceiling at 75%, with some lenders reaching 80%, a premium of 0.5–1.5 percentage points over resident pricing, and trackers opening 0.3–0.6 points below fixed rates; EUR and USD income is accepted without a material premium, while AED and THB income is discounted. The principal players are Skipton International, NatWest International and HSBC Expat (Jersey), and Lloyds Bank International.

The tax layer shapes the ownership structure more decisively than the interest rate does. Section 24 of the Finance (No. 2) Act 2015 — the correct citation; the commonly seen “Finance Act 2015” is wrong — inserted sections 272A and 272B into ITTOIA 2005: relief for mortgage interest on residential buy-to-let was tapered across 2017/18 to 2020/21 and, from 2020/21, replaced by a tax reducer at the basic rate, that is 20% (PIM2054, updated 21 May 2026). The restriction does not touch companies carrying on a property business, nor commercial property; the carve-out for furnished holiday lettings ran until 5 April 2025, after which the FHL regime was abolished.

Hence the logic of holding through a limited company — and the counter-argument on SDLT. The non-resident surcharge of 2% applies to dwellings in England and Northern Ireland for transactions with an effective date on or after 1 April 2021 (s. 75ZA and Schedule 9A of the Finance Act 2003, guidance at SDLTM09850A, updated 26 May 2026), sits on top of every other residential rate, and catches certain UK-resident companies controlled by non-residents. The test is 183 days of presence in the United Kingdom in the 12 months before the purchase; on a joint purchase one buyer's non-residence taints all of them, while spouses count as resident if either one meets the test. The surcharge can be reclaimed by amending the return within two years, on reaching 183 days in any continuous 365-day period around the transaction date. The base scale runs 0% to £125,000, 2% to £250,000, 5% to £925,000, 10% to £1.5m and 12% above that; the additional dwelling surcharge has been 5% since 31 October 2024. Companies pay a flat 17% on dwellings above £500,000 (since 31 October 2024, previously 15%); where a relief applies — for a property rental business, for instance — the ordinary scale plus 5% plus 2% is charged instead, and the effects stack.

France: debt as an IFI instrument

France imposes no regulatory LTV ceiling; the HCSF constraints operate on debt service instead, with taux d'effort capped at 35% and the term at 25 years (D-HCSF-2021-7 of 29 September 2021). The derogation quota is 20% of new lending, and it is nearly exhausted: in Q1 2026 the share of loans breaching the norms reached 17.5%, against 15.7% a year earlier, and the HCSF nonetheless resolved to leave the existing rules in place. A French peculiarity on security: of secured new lending, 70% is backed by a caution (Crédit Logement and its peers) and only 19% by a registered mortgage.

Here the mortgage more often exists for the sake of the IFI. Article 974 I CGI allows deduction of debts existing on 1 January, borne by members of the foyer fiscal and relating to taxable assets, on a closed list: acquisition of property, repair and maintenance, improvement and reconstruction, taxes on the taxable property, and acquisition of company interests au prorata de la fraction imposable. Mixed use yields a deduction only in proportion to the taxable share (BOI-PAT-IFI-20-40-10 of 08.06.2018).

The in fine loan looks like the ideal instrument, and article 974 II CGI defuses it. The provision imposes an amortissement fictif: the deductible amount is the total loan less that same amount multiplied by the number of years elapsed and divided by the total term. The BOFiP worked example: a loan of €1,000,000 over 15 years granted on 30 June 2018 gives a deduction of €1,000,000 for IFI 2019, €933,333 for IFI 2020 and €66,667 for IFI 2033. The borrower owes the bank the full million throughout, while deducting a shrinking fiction — the tax effect of an in fine loan is levelled with that of an ordinary amortising one.

A loan with no fixed term is treated as a twenty-year loan repaid on a straight line: the deduction loses one twentieth each year and reaches zero after twenty. The rule is aimed squarely at Lombard facilities and revolving lines repayable on demand.

Article 974 III CGI closes off intra-family funding: loans from the taxpayer, a spouse, a PACS partner or minor children are non-deductible outright; those from ascendants, descendants, siblings or a controlled company are non-deductible unless the terms are shown to be normal. That is established through actual payments on schedule, a documented date, a genuine term and a market rate.

Article 974 IV CGI constrains large estates: where taxable property exceeds €5,000,000 and deductible debts exceed 60% of that value, the excess counts only by half. The mechanics in illustration: assets of €9m and debts of €6m give a deduction of €5.4m plus half of the €0.6m excess, €5.7m in place of €6m. There is an escape clause: the restriction falls away where the taxpayer shows the debts were “non contractées dans un objectif principalement fiscal”.

Spain: who pays the costs of completion

There were two reforms, on different dates, and collapsing them into “the 2019 reform” produces an error for loans completed between the two. From 10 November 2018 Real Decreto-ley 17/2018 amended article 29 TRLITPAJD: the lender became the taxpayer for AJD on the mortgage deed. At the same time a new paragraph m) in article 15 LIS placed that AJD among the expenses that cannot reduce the corporation tax base. From 16 June 2019 article 14.1.e) of Ley 5/2019 allocated the remaining gastos: gestoría, notarial fees on the mortgage deed and registration of the security fall on the lender, valuation of the property on the borrower, and copies of the deed on whoever requests them. The official FAQ issued by the Ministry of Consumer Affairs on 4 March 2021 confirms the allocation and gives a limitation period of five years for reclaiming improperly charged gastos, while noting that the Supreme Court had not at that point settled when the period begins to run. The wave of reclaims follows the CJEU judgment in joined cases C-224/19 and C-259/19 (CY and Others v Caixabank and Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria, 16 July 2020).

Article 17 of Ley 5/2019 prohibits ventas vinculadas with an exception for insurance: the bank may require a policy securing performance of the obligations and buildings insurance over the mortgaged property, but must accept alternative policies from any provider on equivalent terms and cover, without charging for assessing them. Article 23 caps early repayment compensation: on a variable rate the bank elects one of two options — 0.15% of the capital repaid during the first five years, or 0.25% during the first three; on a fixed rate, 2% during the first ten years and 1.5% thereafter; on conversion from variable to fixed the maximum is 0.15% during the first three years and nil after that. The absolute limit is the bank's actual financial loss: the fee “en ningún caso podrá exceder del importe de la pérdida financiera que sufra el prestamista”.

The average rate on new residential mortgages was 2.98% in May 2026, on an average advance of €174,866 across 42,213 registered residential mortgages (Estadística de Hipotecas, published 20 July 2026) — an upward turn tracking Euribor. The figure of “60–70% LTV for a non-resident” has no primary source; it is loosely consistent with the EMF data, where the market average LTV is 63%, first-time buyers typically take 80%, and second homes “max out at 70%”.

Portugal: new rules from 1 August 2026

The revised macroprudential recommendation of the Banco de Portugal was adopted on 16 June 2026 and applies to creditworthiness assessments from 1 August 2026. It tightens several parameters at once. DSTI (taxa de esforço) falls from 50% to 45%. The exceptions quota is up to 10% of the total amount of credit granted by each institution under the measure in each year, with the earlier tiered structure replaced by a single threshold. Maximum maturity is set on an age grid: 40 years for borrowers up to and including 35 (for the 30–35 band this is an increase from the previous 37) and 35 years for those older. Separately, the 100% LTV allowance for credit to buy property held on the lender's own balance sheet has been removed, so those transactions now fall under the general limits.

The Portuguese LTV ceiling attaches to the purpose of the loan. The borrower's residence status does not affect it: a non-resident buying anything other than an own permanent residence falls into “outras finalidades” with an 80% ceiling. The actual market average LTV is 69%.

Three different figures on term are worth separating explicitly: the EMF records an actual average of 31 years for 2024, the former BdP recommendation steered banks towards 30 years, and the new grid sets 40 or 35 depending on age.

The buyer statistics tell a story of their own: 93.7% of 2024 purchases were made by Portuguese tax residents, up 16.2% year on year. The Banco de Portugal itself notes that the figure understates the role of foreign buyers, since many of them have acquired tax residence. A foreign national who becomes a tax resident borrows on resident terms — which is the cheapest route to a higher available LTV.

The role of the NIF, the need for a representante fiscal, the size of the spread, imposto do selo on the loan and on the mortgage, and the position as at August 2026 of the temporary waiver of early repayment fees on variable-rate loans could not be confirmed against primary sources: portaldasfinancas, eportugal.gov.pt, diariodarepublica.pt and the Banco de Portugal website were all unreachable during checking. This article therefore gives no figures for Portuguese duties or spreads.

Singapore: the mortgage in the shadow of ABSD

On paper the terms look welcoming. LTV is 75% with no outstanding housing loan, 45% with one, 35% with two or more, and 15% for non-individuals (the 5-point reduction across the individual categories has applied since 6 July 2018). TDSR has been 55% since December 2021, MSR is 30% for HDB flats and executive condominiums bought from a developer, the maximum loan tenure is 35 years, and the minimum cash downpayment on a second or subsequent loan is 25%. Reduced limits of 55 / 25 / 15% apply where the tenure exceeds 30 years or runs past age 65; the MAS page notes the existence of the lower limits in the text without setting them out in a summary table.

The binding constraint for a foreign buyer is ABSD: 60% regardless of the number of properties, and 65% for entities, in force since April 2023. For comparison, citizens pay 0/20/30% and permanent residents 5/30/35%. On a SGD 2m property the ABSD comes to SGD 1.2m against a deposit of SGD 500,000 at 75% LTV. The mortgage becomes a technicality against that, and purchase planning starts from the tax.

Greece, Cyprus, Austria, Bulgaria: the frame without the bank practice

Greece introduced borrower-based measures from 1 January 2025 by Bank of Greece decision 227/1/08.03.2024: LTV of 90% for first-time buyers and 80% for everyone else, DSTI of 50/40%. The rate for 2024 was 4.06%, falling to 3.69% in Q1 2025, with 70.4% of new lending fixed. The demand backdrop: foreign direct investment in real estate of €2.5bn in 2024, amounting to 41% of the country's total FDI, and 3,506 Golden Visa applications in the first four months of 2025 against 2,659 a year earlier — growth of 38.9% notwithstanding the higher thresholds introduced in August 2024.

Cyprus applies a binding CBC decision of 9 November 2020, in force from 19 March 2021: 80% on a primary residence and 70% on everything else, with banks going down to 60% on investment property. No debt-to-income limit is set by the regulator — the ESRB notification is confined to LTV — and banks apply their own 30–40%. The variable rate for house purchase was 4.7% at the end of 2024 against 5.2% a year earlier. Meanwhile 51% of all 2024 transactions involved non-residents, with 37% of the total going to non-EU buyers. A market that is half foreign lends to foreigners on terms ten to twenty LTV points worse.

Austria is the only country in the set to have removed its ceiling. The KIM-Verordnung lapsed on 30 June 2025 and was not extended; its parameters had been LTV ≤90%, a Schuldendienstquote ≤40% of net income, a term ≤35 years, and exemptions for loans below €50,000 (€100,000 for couples) and for bridging finance. In its place the FMA issued a non-binding Rundschreiben in June 2025: a bank may depart from those criteria and set its own standards, provided it stays within the requirements for sound lending practice, while the FMSG expects the former parameters to be observed voluntarily. Practice is in any event more conservative than the rule that was abolished: LTV around 50% and rarely above 75%, a rate of 3.89%, terms of 25–30 years.

Bulgaria, by a decision of the BNB Governing Council of 11 September 2024 applying from 1 October 2024, set LTV at 85%, DSTI at 50% and a maximum term of 30 years. Rates are the lowest in the set: 2.53% in BGN and 2.95% in EUR at the end of 2024, on an average LTV of 70–80% and an actual term of around 25 years. The currency question has been closed administratively: from 1 January 2026 the country adopted the euro at the irrevocable rate of BGN 1.95583 to EUR 1 (Council of the EU decision of 8 July 2025), and a market with 96% of loans in leva and 99% on floating rates shed its currency risk overnight.

Bank practice on non-residents in these four jurisdictions is not confirmed by any public source: which banks lend, at what LTV, at what rate and to what maximum age — the data does not exist.

Currency risk and the barriers before the loan

Article 23 of Directive 2014/17/EU (the MCD) requires member states to ensure that foreign currency loans carry either a consumer right of conversion or other arrangements limiting the risk. The alternative currency is either the currency in which the consumer primarily receives income or holds assets, or the currency of the member state in which the consumer was resident at the time of the agreement or is resident now; the choice is left to the member state. The creditor must warn the borrower regularly whenever the total amount payable or the instalments vary by more than 20% from what they would be at the exchange rate applying at the date of the agreement, and where the risk is not limited within that 20% the ESIS must include an illustration of the effect of a 20% swing.

EU banks resolve the question more bluntly: they lend to non-residents in euro only. The currency risk stays with the borrower as a risk on their own income, and the transaction falls outside article 23 as a formal matter. The cost of getting this wrong is shown by C-260/18, Kamil Dziubak and Justyna Dziubak v Raiffeisen Bank International AG (Third Chamber, 3 October 2019) — a Polish mortgage indexed to the Swiss franc, and the wave of claims that followed. The historical exception is Austria, where Fremdwährungskredite made up around 11% of the mortgage book in Q1 2019.

Italy raises a barrier ahead of the mortgage. Article 16 of the disposizioni preliminari al codice civile admits a foreign national to the rights of an Italian citizen “a condizione di reciprocità”; the reciprocity check is mandatory before the transaction, and D.P.R. 394/1999 (article 1) names the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as the competent authority. The Consiglio Nazionale del Notariato review works through country-by-country scenarios, Switzerland among them. That review does not itself state the consequence of a purchase completed without confirmed reciprocity, so the point is best closed with the notary before signing. Italy sets no regulatory LTV ceiling; the rate on long-term fixings at the end of 2024 was 3.03% against 4.03% a year earlier (short fixings ran at around 4.2%), the actual average term is 25.3 years, and variable-rate lending has shrunk to 6.5% of new originations from 33.7%.

A Lombard facility secured on a securities portfolio removes precisely the barriers listed above: the valuation, the local account, the tax number and the compulsory insurance. Bank sources on advance rates and margin call mechanics could not be confirmed, so the verifiable angle to hold in mind here is the tax one: for French IFI purposes a Lombard line with no fixed term falls under the one-twentieth rule in article 974 II CGI, while article 974 I requires the debt to relate to taxable assets — the use of the funds has to be traced through documents, failing which no deduction is available at all.

Popular, and it ends badly

Sources

• ECB — Key ECB interest rates — deposit facility 2.25%, MRO 2.40%, marginal lending 2.65% from 17 June 2026; low of 2.00% from 11 June 2025
• BOE-A-2026-14420, Resolución of 1 July 2026 — official 12-month Euribor for June 2026, 2.798%
• Idealista — Euribor series — July 2.839%, August 2.92%, January 2.245%, August 2025 2.112%
• Bank of England — Bank Rate — 3.75%, decision of 30 July 2026, next meeting 17 September
• CAFPI — rate barometer, August 2026 — 10-year OAT at 4% on 23 July for the first time since 2009, Livret A at 1.7% from 1 August
• ESRB — register of national measures — absence of BBM notifications for Spain and Italy, dates for the other countries
• ESRB — Banco de Portugal notification of 02.07.2026 — adopted 16.06.2026, applies from 01.08.2026, DSTI 45%, LTV 90/80%, 10% annual quota, maturity grid 40/35
• ESRB — Bank of Greece notification of 15.03.2024 — ECA 227/1/08.03.2024, LTV 90/80%, DSTI 50/40%, applies from 01.01.2025
• ESRB — Bulgarian National Bank notification of 11.09.2024 — LTV-O 85%, DSTI-O 50%, 30-year term, applies from 01.10.2024
• ESRB — Central Bank of Cyprus notification of 07.06.2021 — LTV 80% primary residence and 70% other, decision 09.11.2020, applies from 19.03.2021
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Spain — LTV 63%, rate 3.3%, term 24.5 years, 90% fixed, foreign buyers 18%
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Portugal — LTV 69%, rate 4.1%, term 31 years, 93.7% of purchases by tax residents
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — France — LTV 77.7%, rate 3.72%, term 22.25 years, 70% secured by caution and 19% by mortgage
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Italy — long-term fixings 3.03% against 4.03%, term 25.3 years, variable-rate share 6.5%
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Greece — LTV 60.9%, rate 4.06% and 3.69% in Q1 2025, FDI €2.5bn and 41%, 3,506 Golden Visa applications
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Cyprus — rate 4.7% against 5.2%, 80/70/60% scale, 51% of transactions with non-residents and 37% non-EU
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Austria — LTV around 50%, rate 3.89%, term 25–30 years, Fremdwährungskredite 11% in Q1 2019
• EMF Hypostat 2025 — Bulgaria — rates 2.53% BGN and 2.95% EUR, LTV 70–80%, 96% in leva, 99% floating
• CBUAE — Regulations Regarding Mortgage Loans — scope: UAE nationals, GCC nationals and expatriates, from 28.12.2013
• CBUAE Rulebook — Article (3) Important Ratios — LTV, off-plan 50%, 25-year tenor, DBR 50%, age left to the lender
• CBUAE — Amendments to Circular 31/2013 — first-home LTV raised by 5 points by board resolution 31/2/2020 of 8 April 2020
• Skipton International — UK BTL criteria — LTV scale, income thresholds, 125% rental cover at 7.24% for portfolio landlords, EPC, country exclusions
• HMRC PIM2054 — ss. 272A and 272B ITTOIA 2005, basic rate relief, abolition of the FHL regime, updated 21 May 2026
• HMRC SDLTM09850A — s. 75ZA and Schedule 9A FA 2003, 2% non-resident surcharge from 01.04.2021, updated 26 May 2026
• gov.uk — SDLT rates for non-UK residents — 183-day test, rules for joint buyers and spouses, two-year reclaim window
• gov.uk — SDLT: corporate bodies — flat 17% from 31 October 2024 and the list of reliefs
• Article 974 CGI, Légifrance — notional amortisation, the one-twentieth rule, anti-avoidance provisions, the €5m and 60% thresholds
• BOI-PAT-IFI-20-40-10 — the closed list of deductible debts and the au prorata rule
• BOI-PAT-IFI-20-40-20 — the in fine computation on a €1m 15-year loan of 30 June 2018
• Meilleurtaux — HCSF derogations, June 2026 — 17.5% of lending above the norms against 15.7% a year earlier, on a 20% quota
• Real Decreto-ley 17/2018, BOE — AJD shifted to the lender and the article 15 LIS amendment, in force from 10 November 2018
• Ley 5/2019, BOE — article 14.1.e) on the allocation of gastos, article 17 on insurance, article 23 on early repayment, in force from 16.06.2019
• Spanish Ministry of Consumer Affairs — FAQ on gastos hipotecarios — official allocation of costs dated 4 March 2021 and the five-year reclaim period
• INE — Estadística de Hipotecas — rate 2.98%, average €174,866 and 42,213 mortgages in May 2026, published 20 July 2026
• MAS — Macroprudential policies in Singapore — LTV 75/45/35% and 15% for non-individuals, TDSR 55%, MSR 30%, ABSD 60% and 65%
• Withers — ABSD of up to 65% on Singapore residential property — analysis of the April 2023 tightening
• FMA — Wohnimmobilienkredite — lapse of the KIM-V on 30 June 2025, the non-binding Rundschreiben and FMSG expectations
• Council of the EU — Bulgaria to adopt the euro from 1 January 2026 — rate of BGN 1.95583 to EUR 1, decision of 8 July 2025
• Directive 2014/17/EU, article 23 — right of conversion, definition of the alternative currency, 20% warning threshold, ESIS requirements
• CJEU, C-260/18 Dziubak — franc-indexed mortgage, Third Chamber judgment of 3 October 2019
• CJEU, C-224/19 and C-259/19 Caixabank and BBVA — term shifting all costs onto the borrower, judgment of 16 July 2020
• Consiglio Nazionale del Notariato — review on the condizione di reciprocità — article 16 preleggi, Ministry of Foreign Affairs competence under D.P.R. 394/1999, country scenarios
• Engel & Völkers — Dubai mortgages for non-residents — marketing source, LTV 60–65% and a list of banks
• Grovy — UAE mortgage rules 2026 — marketing source, LTV 50–60%, income thresholds, DLD fees

Last reviewed: August 2026